Discuss the reasons for the emergence of China as a global trading Essay - 1

Discuss the reasons for the emergence of China as a global trading power in the light of international trade theories - Essay Example There are various theories behind the rise of China as one of the strongest economies in the world. This work will look into and discuss the reasons behind the emergence of China as a global trading power in the world in the light of International Trade Theories. China has remained one of the strongest Communist countries in the world and after the fall of USSR, it has emerged as the center of the Political ideology in the world. However the subsequent reforms saw the start of the country’s transition to the market economies. The economic reforms into China started during 1978 and are considered as most successful as compared to the other controlled economies of Eastern Europe. A comparative study of the transition economies would suggest that China has been able to perform better than other transition economies of Eastern Europe mainly because of the rise of private firms into China. The emergence of Private firms into China has been extra-ordinary despite the fact that State has protected the state owned enterprises. The rise of China therefore is also attributed to the unplanned rise of private firms into the country besides the government reforms. From 1978 to 1992, the gross national product in China grew at an average rate of 9% and in 1992 and 1993, growth accelerated to over thirteen percent, giving China the worlds fastest growing economy. In 1994, even with attempts to cool down the economy, growth remained above ten percent.Error: Reference source not found. However it also must be noted that the largely held misconception that the Mao Zedong was behind the economic rise of China is not correct in its true sense as many believed that a great Opportunity to fulfill the Chinese dream remained unfulfilled during his era however the Mao era also saw the changes into health, education and other sectors of the economy however on the whole it remained largely under achieved economy during

Women Rock Musician in History from the beginning in Unites States Essay

Women Rock Musician in History from the beginning in Unites States - Essay Example Rock and roll resulted from the convergence of rhythm, blues, and country musical genres plus a series of hi-tech developments, which creates an innovative market for the music. Blues are known to have developed from songs sung by African-Americans while working; they had originally been brought to the USA as slaves. While working at plantations, they used to communicate by means of â€Å"call and response,† fooling the plantation owners, saying that the music was happy though they actually used it to discuss issues about the owners; and just as rhythm and blues developed from blues, rock and roll developed from rhythm and blues (R&B). Among the great women that have made a contribution in the history rock and roll especially when it comes to playing instruments in bands or in singles included; Wanda Jackson (guitarist), Nancy Wilson (guitarist), Meg White (Pianist), Bonnie Rait (guitarist), and, other artists of today like Lady Gaga, who started playing the piano at a tender age and Taylor Swift who plays the guitar. Some of the technological advancements during the commencement of rock and roll in the 1940s included phonographs, which were initially bulky and could be damaged easily, so most people were tired of them, even though they were common. However, during the same time when rock and roll started, significant transformations were evident; the records that primarily played at 78 rpm (rounds per minute) were enhanced, and those that replaced them played at 33 and 45rpm, making them less bulky and easy to handle. American Rock (United States Rock) Women played key roles in the growth and development of the rock and roll genre, starting with early blues artists like Ma Rainey (Mother of the blues) and Bessie Smith (Vocalist from the black community), who were surprisingly the only women who recorded blues in the 1920’s, and Mother Maybelle Carter who recorded the first country music in 1927. These three plus other prominent women put on great effort towards establishing equality and basic human rights for the female gender emphasizing on the right to vote and working towards social justice (National Museum of Women Arts, 1). Moreover, other women involved in the campaign included; Ruth Brown and Lavern Baker (R&B singers), the famous rockabilly queen Wanda Jackson, Mahalia Jackson, Sister Rosetta Tharpe who mastered the guitar by the age of six, Memphis Minnie and Billie Holiday; some of who were talented and creative when it came to the different genres and were definitely trailblazers of rock and roll in the 50s. Significantly, as from 1950, rock and roll dominated most of the other music genres, making it a major force in American record sales, and crooners such as Patti Page found themselves pulled out of the pop charts due to the development and growth of rock and roll artists (Saatchi Gallery 1). Rock and roll bands and artists that dominated the pop charts during the 1950s included the Shirelles and the Supremes hence later on there were others like Janis Joplin, Grace Slick, Joni Mitchell, Carole King and Laura Nyro who ruled in the 1970s, setting a platform for the artists that are there today i.e. Carrie Underwood. Concomitantly, as rock and roll advanced, more divisions of it continued to emerge, such as surf music, which involved instrumental rock and roll, garage rock that was in the form of amateurish rock music, blues rock that often emulated jazz, folk rock that was identified with progressive or labor politics, and country rock that emulated country music. Others not so common were roots rock, psychedelic rock and southern rock, and by the 1970s there had been more such as progressive rock, glam rock, soft and hard rock (that are even common today), early

What Is Whistle Blowing Philosophy Essay

What Is Whistle Blowing Philosophy Essay Whistle-blowing is a disclosure by organization members of illegal, immoral or unethical practices under the control of their employer, to persons or organizations that may affect action. Immoral practices can be violation of law, violation of public interest such as fraud, violation of health/safety, corruption etc. the organizations that may affect this action can be media, public interest groups, enforcement agencies etc. TYPES OF WHISTLEBLOWING: Internal whistle-blowing: To report misconduct to a fellow employee or senior management within the company. External whistle-blowing: Report misconduct to outside entities or general public. ETHICAL ISSUES RELATED TO WHISTLE-BLOWING: The generally prevailing view of the whistleblower within business on the part of the management and colleagues is that this person is the traitor to the organization. (Richard DeGeorge) Employees have both moral and legal obligations to be loyal to their employees. (Beauchamp and Browie) Whistle-blowing is a conflicting matter in terms of employee loyalty. On one hand it may be seen as loyal and on another, disloyal. It is assumed that employees have a vow to protect the dealings of the organization. External whistle-blowing is wrong because an employee has a contractual duty to be loyal to corporation he is working in. Whereas Ronald Duska says: One does not have an obligation of loyalty to a company, even a prima facie one, because companies are not the kind of things that are properly objects of loyalty. This means it is impossible to associate loyalty with a company because it is an abstract entity. Because company does not have a mind of its own, instead, it is made up of people working towards the same goal. A whistle-blower is not disloyal in reality. We can make an argument that a whistle-blower shows greater loyalty as compared to the person who ignores any malpractices in the organization. Whistle-blowing is a brave act of conscience and a person who blows the whistle may carry heavy personal costs. One should do what is right, lost income can be replaced but lost self-esteem is difficult to retrieve. IS THERE A RIGHT TO BLOW THE WHISTLE? Nobody can answer whether blowing whistle is good or bad because the problem is that it has effects, good as well as bad. Sometimes whistle-blowing causes more problem than good. If there is an issue that has to be addressed to the top authorities then it should be channeled through right authorities. If a whistle-blower starts talking to his co-workers about some malpractices, the office environment gets effected. And also the claims of whistle-blower are not always genuine. As a result other employees get dragged into it unnecessarily and company gets involved in lawsuits. By the time the company proves its innocence it has already suffered a loss of thousands of dollars. Whistle-blower should approach the internal authority prior to externally blowing the whistle. Because sometimes the top management is not aware of the problem and employees make the situation worse by blowing the whistle. An employee has an ethical obligation to blow the whistle. It is beneficial for him to act ethically and show loyalty by not only obeying the rules and regulations of the company but also reporting genuine wrongdoings that may affect the public at large. ETHICAL PERSPECTIVES ON WHISTLE-BLOWING: DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS: For example, a company is making unsafe consumer products in order to save some money. An employee working in that organization sees this as immoral and reports the media about it. A whistle-blower would do this according to Kants duty-based ethics. Moral obligations have nothing to do with consequences. RIGHTS THEORY: Whistle-blowing is not morally required according to rights theory. Everyone has a welfare right to make income and support themselves and their family, so they cannot do this without a job. By blowing the whistle he/she may get fired so it is better to ignore any malpractices in the organization. UTILITARIANISM: Utilitarianism is based on principle to predict the consequences of an action. Utilitarianism is more clearly understood by cost-benefit analysis. Whistle-blowing has many moral venues. On one side the welfare of employees must be considered and on the other side the consumer. Utilitarian simplify whistleblowing by pleasure versus pain issue. If whistle-blowing will generate less pain than pleasure then it is a good act. If not, then it is wrong and unethical THE FORD PINTO CASE: In the Ford Pinto case it is a well-known fact that before the production of this car Ford engineers were aware of Pintos potential for catastrophe. They had a crash test at a top secret site and every test at 25mph resulted in ruptured gas tank of the car. Ford employees under the oath denied this fact and this car flooded the market for about eight years. An internal cost-benefit analysis illustrated that it was not profitable for the company to make changes sooner. Thus, they placed monetary worth on human life. Total benefit was $49.5 million and total cost was $137 million. Therefore, none of the employees blew the whistle because they had a fear of being fired from the job. ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE: Prophet Mohammad PBUH said: Discussions are confidential (not subject to disclosure) except in three places: shedding unlawful blood, unlawful cohabitation and unlawful accumulation of wealth. (Abu Dawud) Prophet of Allah (P.B.U.H.) said: He who saw Munkar (wrongdoing) amongst you should prevent it with his hand, if unable to, then with his mouth (i.e. whistle blowing), if unable to, then (dislike it) in his heart and that is the least of faith. (Abu said al khudri) These sayings of Prophet Muhammad proved that whistle-blowing is also encouraged by Islam. Richard De Georges Theory of Whistleblowing The philosopher Richard DeGeorge proposed that external whistleblowing is morally permissible when three conditions are fulfilled. Whistleblowing is termed as acceptable by DeGeorge when following three conditions are met: If any product or policy cause serious harm for the general public. If an employee realizes an intense danger to the consumer of a product he or she should report it to his supervisor. Therefore manager responsible for the manufacturing of the product should be aware of its threat. If an employees immediate supervisor does not take the moral concern regarding the product into account, thus the internal chain of command has been exhausted. The firstcriteria explain the intensity of issue. The explanation of harm can be assessed in terms of physical, emotional or financial harm. The second and third criteria can be interpreted that employee tried hi level best to address via internal means. DeGeorge holds that whistleblowing becomes morally required when in addition to the previous three conditions the following two conditions are met: There is sufficient accessible documented evidence available to convince an impartial individual. The employee must have valid and strong reason that by going public, necessary changes will be brought. Moreover, benefits of whistleblowing must be worth the risks one takes and the dangers to which one is encountered. WORLDCOMS WHISTLEBLOWER Cynthia Cooper Case: In March 2002, when WorldCom was struggling tocoordinate and integrate the complex mess created by the 65 companies it had acquired, World-Coms highly respected chief financial officer,Scott Sullivan, moved $400 million from a reserve account and recorded it as income in the companys public financial reports. Alerted to this, CynthiaCooper, the perfectionist head of WorldComs internal audit department, began to secretly examinethe companys books. She  soon discovered that Scott Sullivan and David Myers, for years had publicly reported billionsof dollars as capital expenditures when they were in real the operating costs. Uncollectible receivables were ignored, and reported as  income what were reallyreserve funds, and did all this with the help of ArthurAndersen, the companys auditor and accounting firm. Though angrily threatened by Sullivan, andrisking her job and career, on June 20, 2002, Cynthia Cooper courageously met with the auditcommittee of WorldComs board of directors and   toldthem what had been going on. On June 25, World-Coms directors announced the company had  inflatedits profits by over $3.8 billion-an amount later  roseto $9 billion-is the greatest accounting fraud in history. Sullivan and Myers were arrested; WorldComs shareholders lost $3 billion; 17,000 WorldCom workers lost their jobs.It was the biggest fraud in U.S. corporate history. WorldCom declared bankruptcy in July 2002, after its stocks value had declined by $180 billion and its founder; Bernard Ebbers had left the company. CynthiaCooper was later recognized as one of the three Persons of the Year by Time Magazine. Analysis Based on Kantian Ethics Philosopher Immanuel Kant is renowned for his ethical theory which is categorized under Deontological ethics. According to his theory it can be assessed that it is the intention behind an action rather its consequences that make an action good. Deontological Moral system is based on the categorical imperative. According to Kant to act from a good will is to act from a duty. The act of Cynthia Coopers whistleblowing fits into this categorical imperative of duty to do the right thing. The sole motive of the action is report financial crime; there are no monetary gains or self-interested motives. A Kantian view justifies Cynthia Coopers whistleblowing as reporting financial crime is morallyright thing to do, thus moral obligation has nothing to do with consequences. Since Kant believed that every action has a maxim, we need to ask what would happen if the principle (maxim) of an action were a universal law (one that everyone acted on). Would a world where everyone acted on that principle be possible? If it can, then the decision to act would be morally permissible (Bowie, 1999). Therefore the proposed act of whistleblowing passes Kants test of universizability. If whistleblowing were a universal principle, all would benefit from the transparency and investor confidence would be maximized; therefore, according to Kant, the act of whistleblowing is morally permissible. Analysis based on Kohlbergs Moral theory of Development   Kohlbergs theory is useful because it helps us understand how our moral capacitiesdevelop and reveals how we may mature in our understanding of our own moralstandards. According to Kohlberg Cynthia reached the sixth stage of moral development: Universal Moral Principles Orientation. This is because at thisPost conventional stage, right  action  comes  to be defined  in terms  of moral  principles chosenbecause of their reasonableness, universality, and consistency. Cynthia believed that manipulation of financial accounts is a universal crime and therefore she reported the misconduct based on the moral principle orientation. Cynthia Cooper justified her choices on the basis of moral principles and obligations as during the interview with Times Magazine she said: There is a price to be paid. [But] it comes back to the values and ethics that you learnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..The fear of losing my job was secondary to the obligation I felt. WHISTLE BLOWING IN PAKISTAN Whistle blowing internal and external is usually not practical for employees in Pakistan because they dont posses the resources either within the firm or within the civil society. They lack strong moral beliefs, confidence, will power and commitments and are scared of the consequences. Today, media especially journalism is acting as a whistleblower to the public. The current political environment in Pakistan threatens whistle blowers in a corporation from upholding their voices against illegal practices of their organization. Employees who blow whistle are refrained from doing so and observe difficulties and barriers such as life threats, political insecurity, risk of career and family insecurity. In our country, unsafe medical practices and unethical behavior is at such a high level and widely spread that blowing a whistle to alarm the authority would be simply inaudible. Health care fraud is very common in Pakistan. False claims, patients required paying illegal fees, absence of staff and refusing to see patients in government hospitals and referring them to private clinics are violating ethical spheres. 95% of the population in Pakistan holds the view that our health sector is corrupt. The fear of been victimized, loosing the job and career, is the main concern very often trainee doctors keep quiet and do not raise their voice against their seniors. RICHARD BARLOWS CASE Richard Barlow  is an  American  intelligence analyst and a former senior member of the  Central Intelligence Agency. He lost his job and was charged of being disloyal to CIA. Barlow learned that the top US officials were allowing the sale of the F-16 fighters to Pakistan in 1989. It was against the 1985  Pressler amendment of the  Foreign Assistance Act  which prohibited the sale of any  material or armaments which might assist in the development or manufacturing of nuclear weapons. He also found that the officials were concealing this information from Congress since telling the truth would have legally obligated US government to restrain from giving military aid to Pakistan at the time when it was being provided, through Pakistan, to Afghanistan against Soviet Union. Barlow therefore blew a whistle without considering the consequences. As a result he was asked to prove himself before Congress and court. He was charged of being a traitor and an adulterer. He lost his job. It was life altering experience for him which damaged his marriage, career and left irreparable dents on his character. He is quoted as saying: They smeared my name in truly extraordinary ways that no one had ever seen before If he had been listened to, many people believe that our country would have never got its nuclear bomb. ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS KANTIAN ETHICS: Immanuel Kant is the founder of deontological ethics. He states that ethical behaviors are those which are duty oriented. A person must perform what is his duty, not whats good. The act of Richard Barlow is justified on Kantian grounds. Sacrifice of self interest for the greater interest of the society was the act performed by Barlow. LOYAL AGENT ARGUMENT: Loyal agent argument reduces an employee from being human to just being an organ of the organization. Loyalty does not imply that we have a duty to refrain from reporting the immoral actions of those to who we are loyal. An employer who is acting unethical is not acting in his own best interests and an employee is not acting disloyally in blowing the whistle. LEGAL PROTECTION TO WHISTLE BLOWERS One of the early laws that protected whistleblowers was the 1863 United States  False Claims Act  (revised in 1986), which tried to counter fraud by the US government during the  Civil War. Under the 1st and 14th Amendments to the U.S. Constitution, state and local government bureaucrats are prohibited from opposing whistleblowers. Boards like Civil Service Reform Act are created Whistle blowing has gone high tech; therefore steps are taken to ensure safety of them. There are different websites available which guide employees on ethical issues like national whistle blowing centre(NWC) Federal (equal employment opportunity) laws also have protection provisions for whistle blowers. If you observe a  prohibited discrimination  against employees you may report the concerned authorities. Consumer Rights Commission of Pakistan has stated the unavailability of protection to whistle blowers and lack of transparency as the major causes of corruption in our state. Therefore, it has created an interface in the form of Freedom of Information Bill 2008. Summarizing: Whistleblowers not only provide the initial stimulus for improving organization efficiency and effectiveness, but also they are often the source of solutions to organization problems (Miceli et al., 1991). Whistle blower observes a dilemma between serving as a loyal agent and preventing social harm. This implies that he should reconcile his own interest with the general interest of the organization. Utilitarian considerations therefore cannot furnish a definitive guide in this context. Whistle blowing must be institutionalized. This means that there must be a set of procedures for employees to report the fraud internally before they raise the matter in the outside world

Telecommunication :: essays research papers

Fuzzy Sets and Systems Lotfi A. Zadeh, The founder of fuzzy logic comp.ai.fuzzy New fuzzy archive by thread. Fuzzy Logic Tools and Companies. General sources of fuzzy information. Maintained by Bob John. Conferences and Workshops on Fuzzy Systems: 1990-2001 From the Parallel and Distributed Processing Laboratory of the Department of Applied Informatics, University of Macedonia, Thessaloniki, Greece World Federation on Soft Computing Artificial Intelligence-related Frequently Asked Questions Professional Organizations and Networks International Fuzzy Systems Association (IFSA) IFSA is a worldwide organization dedicated to the support and development of the theory of fuzzy sets and systems and related areas and their applications, publishes the International Journal of Fuzzy Sets and Systems, holds International conferences, establishes chapters and sponsors other activities. Japan Society for Fuzzy Theory and Systems (SOFT) Established in 1989. SOFT has 1,670 individual members and 74 company members, publishes an official bimonthly journal and organizes fuzzy systems symposiums. There are 8 regional branches and 8 research groups in SOFT. Berkeley Initiative in Soft Computing (BISC) BISC Program is the world-leading center for basic and applied research in soft computing. The principal constituents of soft computing (SC) are fuzzy logic (FL), neural network theory (NN) and probabilistic reasoning (PR), with the latter subsuming belief networks, evolutionary computing including DNA computing, chaos theory and parts of learning theory. North American Fuzzy Information Processing Society (NAFIPS) As the premier fuzzy society in North America established in 1981, our purpose is to help guide and encourage the development of fuzzy sets and related technologies for the benefit of mankind. Please mail questions/comments to the NAFIPS president (president@nafips.org) or to the NAFIPS web site maintainer (webmaster@nafips.org). Spanish Association of Fuzzy Logic and Technologies Promotes and disseminates the methods, techniques and developments of Fuzzy Logic and Technologies; Establish relations with other national or international Associations with similar aims; Organizes seminars and round tables on Fuzzy Logic and Technologies. Fuzzy Research Groups in Spain. The European Society for Fuzzy Logic and Technology (EUSFLAT) Established in 1998. The main goal of EUSFLAT are to represent the European fuzzy community of IFSA. To become a member of EUSFLAT please fill in the registration form. Hungarian Fuzzy Society Established in 1998. Honorary president: Tibor VÃ ¡mos. President: Imre Rudas. EUROFUSE Working Group on Fuzzy Sets of EURO Established in 1975. The purpose of EUROFUSE is to communicate and promote the knowledge of the theory of fuzzy sets and related areas and their applications. Telecommunication :: essays research papers Fuzzy Sets and Systems Lotfi A. Zadeh, The founder of fuzzy logic comp.ai.fuzzy New fuzzy archive by thread. Fuzzy Logic Tools and Companies. General sources of fuzzy information. Maintained by Bob John. Conferences and Workshops on Fuzzy Systems: 1990-2001 From the Parallel and Distributed Processing Laboratory of the Department of Applied Informatics, University of Macedonia, Thessaloniki, Greece World Federation on Soft Computing Artificial Intelligence-related Frequently Asked Questions Professional Organizations and Networks International Fuzzy Systems Association (IFSA) IFSA is a worldwide organization dedicated to the support and development of the theory of fuzzy sets and systems and related areas and their applications, publishes the International Journal of Fuzzy Sets and Systems, holds International conferences, establishes chapters and sponsors other activities. Japan Society for Fuzzy Theory and Systems (SOFT) Established in 1989. SOFT has 1,670 individual members and 74 company members, publishes an official bimonthly journal and organizes fuzzy systems symposiums. There are 8 regional branches and 8 research groups in SOFT. Berkeley Initiative in Soft Computing (BISC) BISC Program is the world-leading center for basic and applied research in soft computing. The principal constituents of soft computing (SC) are fuzzy logic (FL), neural network theory (NN) and probabilistic reasoning (PR), with the latter subsuming belief networks, evolutionary computing including DNA computing, chaos theory and parts of learning theory. North American Fuzzy Information Processing Society (NAFIPS) As the premier fuzzy society in North America established in 1981, our purpose is to help guide and encourage the development of fuzzy sets and related technologies for the benefit of mankind. Please mail questions/comments to the NAFIPS president (president@nafips.org) or to the NAFIPS web site maintainer (webmaster@nafips.org). Spanish Association of Fuzzy Logic and Technologies Promotes and disseminates the methods, techniques and developments of Fuzzy Logic and Technologies; Establish relations with other national or international Associations with similar aims; Organizes seminars and round tables on Fuzzy Logic and Technologies. Fuzzy Research Groups in Spain. The European Society for Fuzzy Logic and Technology (EUSFLAT) Established in 1998. The main goal of EUSFLAT are to represent the European fuzzy community of IFSA. To become a member of EUSFLAT please fill in the registration form. Hungarian Fuzzy Society Established in 1998. Honorary president: Tibor VÃ ¡mos. President: Imre Rudas. EUROFUSE Working Group on Fuzzy Sets of EURO Established in 1975. The purpose of EUROFUSE is to communicate and promote the knowledge of the theory of fuzzy sets and related areas and their applications.

Realism and Metarealism in Mary Shelley’s Horror Tale Frankenstein

Many great novels act as representations of their age and time, and of the way in which people thought of themselves in relation to their world. Novels which are set in a particular place and time are generally involved with the major upheavals of their society, to some extent or other. The novel is capable of richly alluding to the general aspirations, perceptions, the general world-view as well as what people think they know about how the world they live in has come about.In this respect, for instance, Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice and Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, which are seemingly poles apart in their style and content, serve a similar purpose: the former is concerned to evaluate the currents of change of its time as much as the latter is inspired by the revolutionary developments of knowledge of the contemporary world (Walder 135). Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus (1818) certainly seems to be entirely derived from a dream or nightmare, something very un likely to have happened to somebody in real life.True, some novels can seem to be more fictitious than others, and Frankenstein had been a novel in fictional category of its own. With her novel Frankenstein, Mary Shelley, at the age of 20, in fact inadvertently invented a revolutionary whole new genre of fiction which hardly existed before her time, namely science fiction. In this sense, Frankenstein may not be representative of real life, and yet it was representative of an emerging new paradigm of scientific thinking in her time, during the first decades of the nineteenth century.Frankenstein is generally regarded as representative of over-the-top fiction, with man acting as God, dead bodies coming to life, monsters, murder and mayhem — yet we will here argue that there is a great degree of realism in this quintessential fantasy story of the early nineteenth century. The every-day realism in Frankenstein is deftly combined with elements of a prevalent genre called Gothic, w hich more suited Mary Shelley's soaring imaginings. For instance, in the Gothic novel, one story is often nestled within another and large sections of the narrative come out as a tale told by one character to another.In this and many other senses, Frankenstein follows many rules and conventions typical of the Gothic genre. At the core of the novel is the story told by the â€Å"creature† that exists within the story told by the scientist Frankenstein, which is within the story told by the explorer, Walton (Allen 63). Yet this is no regular horror tale. Though it certainly created one of the two enduring â€Å"monsters† of all time in English Fiction, this is not a monster tale in any real sense either.Frankenstein’s creature, though labeled a monster, cannot be considered a monster, with any true justification, on par with other popular monsters such as Dracula or Godzilla. Frankenstein’s creature is a noble savage, and if anything, is sometimes more huma n than most humans. For instance, in the most recent revival of Frankenstein’s creature on Hollywood Screen, he sides with the eponymous human protagonist, Van Helsing, to battle against Count Dracula and his forces of darkness. Frankenstein’s creature embodies the quintessential human spirit and human longings.In a similar way, though being part of the Gothic fantasy tradition, and the most significant harbinger of perhaps the most highly imaginative genre of fiction, besides referring to a Greek myth in its sub-title, Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein embodies a little of the spirit, the longings and fears of her age. Frankenstein's 1818 preface makes a clear distinction between its scientific plot, which was inspired by the scientific leanings of the time, and the more easily recognized action in the vein of Gothic fiction: â€Å"I have not considered myself as merely weaving a series of supernatural terrors.The event on which the interest of the story depends is exempt from the disadvantages of a mere tale of spectres or enchantment. (Shelley 47)† In truth, Frankenstein's claim to originality lies in its defiant rejection of the supernatural (Alkon 2). Thus, though often regarded as a fabulous flight of fancy, Mary Shelley's Frankenstein contains a powerful dose of realism, as opposed to supernaturalism, symbolism, or pure fantasy, at its core. But much more importantly, for the first time in the history of literature, it seeks out a new scientifically based vision of reality.By attempting to transpose the status of creator from God to man, and the secularization of the means of creation from the realm of miracles to the arena of science (Levine 27), Frankenstein offered a drastically new way of looking at our world that is devoid of supernaturalism or fantasy. Thus Frankenstein is not only a product of what is known as â€Å"realistic imagination,† but presents a deeper understanding of reality more in keeping with the then ra ther newly emerging scientific mode of thinking.Terror remains a predominant element, an effect Mary Shelley avowedly sought to create, in the novel, yet it is by no means of a supernatural variety, as for instance in its counterpart Bram Stoker’s Dracula (or even Dracula’s progenitor Byron’s Vampyre which was incidentally created during the same occasion that spurred the creating of Frankenstein). The fright factor in the novel is implemented through natural means involving science and human psychology.Thus, although affiliated to the accepted Gothic norms and forms of creating a â€Å"ghost story,† Frankenstein's essential realism validates its claim to novelty. The fear that Frankenstein evokes is not one of a spooky, instinctive kind, but rather of more thoughtful and plausible nature. Frankenstein succeeds in inspiring awe and reverence for greatness of ambition, and yet at the same time instills a healthy level of fear and distrust of those who act on it rather blindly.The ambition of the novel’s protagonist, Victor Frankenstein, that of recreating a living intelligent human form, may seem fantastic to us, yet it was by no means wholly outlandish by the standards of the time, the early nineteenth century being an extravagantly ambitious era when literally almost everything was considered possible by means of science. Great ambitions can succeed in the realization of great dreams, but they can also result in bringing to life unspeakable nightmares.Thus, though Mary Shelley may have worked on to create a conspicuous element of stark horror merely for the sake of sensationalism, in conforming with the purposes of â€Å"ghost story† genre, the fears that Frankenstein gives expression to are more like warnings of consequences when great ambitions take a wrong track or are pursued without sufficient foresight. Alkon observes that: A looming problem for writers in the nineteenth century was how to achieve sublimity with out recourse to the supernatural†¦.The supernatural marvels that had been a staple of epic and lesser forms from Homeric times would no longer do as the best sources of sublimity. Although ghost stories and related Gothic fantasies were to prove surprisingly viable right through the twentieth century, perhaps because they offer respite from the omnipresence of technology, writers sought new forms that could better accommodate the impact of science. Epics were displaced by realistic novels of quotidian life (2). . Fantasy tales normally act as a means of escape from the tyranny of every-day reality.However the advent and advancement of modern science was making the routine world that we take for granted a place of exhilarating possibilities and endless adventure. There was no need for an escape from our familiar world to seek thrill, excitement and â€Å"sublimity† anymore. Science made our every-day world hot and happening. At the same time, the phenomenal progress and p romise of science was bound to raise many fears and concerns in the thinker and common man alike, then as much as now.Frankenstein reflects the dominant theme of a quest for adventure and accomplishment, along with hopes and fears about how far we are willing to go in our relentless pursuit of scientific accomplishment. A significant achievement of Frankenstein lies in the fact that it became a trend-setter in a movement that was to bring more style and substance based on considerations of real-life world into the art form of the novel.However the most sublime virtue of Mary Shelley’s novel is that it goes beyond even realism into the world of deeper and timeless truths about human existence. The subtitle of the novel, â€Å"The Modern Prometheus† says it all. In the summer of 1816, Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin had been living with Percy Shelley for two years, going through ordeals and troubled times together. During this particular period they found themselves settled i n Geneva, amidst the natural splendor of Alps, as well as in the stimulating company of Bryon.The origins of Frankenstein can be traced back to the rambling night conversations between these three luminaries, which must have presumably ranged from gothic terrors to galvanism, touching upon the prevalent theories of electricity and the origin of life. However, the fact that the three of them were to compose a major work with Prometheus in or as the title, that very same year, is a clear indicator that the myth of Prometheus and its significance should have been one of the major topics of their conversations.The subtitle of the novel Frankenstein, alluding to the myth of Prometheus, indeed holds an essential clue as to the original intent and purport of the author (Joseph v). Metarealism, for our present purposes, can be defined as the externalization of interior realities that are transformed into mystical or mythological metaphors. In this sense, transcending the particular context of its contemporary time, Frankenstein becomes a myth and a metaphor for human existence and evolution as such.Prometheus is generally portrayed as the suffering champion of mankind, but in Mary Shelley’s novel, in the form of Victor Frankenstein, he becomes a creator. The vital spark of fire that Prometheus stole from gods to give it to mortals for their use, and for which he is eternally condemned, is often equated with the spark of creativity in humans. As expressed via the means of science, our creativity can exalt us to the status of gods; at the same time, there is an intrinsic danger that it can cast us into eternal perdition.Almost two hundred after impetuously and almost naively suggested by Mary Shelley, notwithstanding the realistic scientific garb she wanted to give it, the prospect of us humans creating synthetic and intelligent life would come very close to reality in the years to come, thanks not the miracles of electricity, as depicted in the novel, but to the marvels of genetic engineering. However, the murder and mayhem unleashed by Frankenstein’s creature could pale into utter insignificance when compared to the horrors that could be visited upon us by extremely advanced technologies of tomorrow, especially genetic engineering.The lot that fell upon Victor Frankenstein could in all probability be the fate of mankind in the near future. Mary Shelley attempted to make what was essentially a gothic fantasy sound closer to our real world, but most ironically, our real world is all poised to assume the weirdness and surrealism of a gothic fantasy if the â€Å"Victor Frankenstein† amidst us is allowed to experiment and pursue his scientific ambitions wantonly.Unfortunately, there does not seem any way to stop him, because stopping him would mean the ending of progress. Our own progress leading to our own perdition, perhaps that is the ultimate tragedy and horror of humankind. References: Alkon, Paul K. â€Å"Science Fiction B efore 1900: Imagination Discovers Technology. † London : Routledge. 2002 Allen, Richard. â€Å"Reading Frankenstein. † In, The Realist Novel, ed. Dennis Walder. pp. 61 -96. London : Routledge. 1995. Joseph, M. K. â€Å"Introduction.† Frankenstein: Or the Modern Prometheus, by Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley. Oxford : Oxford University Press. 1969 Levine, George. â€Å"The Realistic Imagination: English Fiction from Frankenstein to Lady Chatterly. † Chicago : The University of Chicago Press. 1981 Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft. â€Å"Frankenstein† (Original 1818 Text). Peterborough, Ontario : Broadway Press. 1999 Walder, Dennis. â€Å"Reading Great Expectations. † In, The Realist Novel, ed. Dennis Walder. pp. 135 -166. London : Routledge. 1995.

Effects of Internet on Academic Fraud Essay

It has been found out that the prevalent developments in the field of Information and Communications Technologies has made academic dishonesty easier and nonetheless more tempting and more efficient. This implies that the technology, especially the internet, has made a great negative impact on the society by making academic fraud more prevalent. (Eckstein, M. A. ) Academic fraud has appeared to be on a constant increase in developed and developing countries alike. Many may not realize how this can be a very costly threat to the society and its efficient operation. Moreover, this increase in academic dishonesty would also impart a social disruption on public trust in the reliability and security of many academic and academic related institutions. (Rusch, J. J. ) Academic dishonesty is defined as any form of academic misconduct manifested by any form of cheating that is made in relation to formal academic exercise. This would include plagiarism – which is to literally steal the intellectual property or ideas of other people by using their ideas and not properly citing the authors in the references, or by claiming ideas of others to be your own original idea; fabrication- which is the falsification of data (input of false data) or citations in any formal academic exercise; deception – which includes the providing of negativfe information to an instructor regarding a formal academic exercise (e. g. giving a false excuse for being late or absent or for missing a deadline); cheating – which is any attempt to obtain external assistance in a formal academic exercise, which is to be worked out alone, without due or proper acknowledgements; and sabotage – which is to make an act that would prevent others from completing their work. (McCabe D. L. and Trevino L. K. , 1997) Academic dishonesty has been documented in mostly every type of educational setting; from preschool to elementary school, high school, college and even on graduate school, and has been met with varying degrees of approbation throughout history. Today, educated society tends to take a more negative view of academic dishonesty. (Eckstein, M. A. ) In antiquity, the idea of such a thing as intellectual property did not exist. Ideas were made to be common property of the scholars, literate and the elite. Books were published by hand-copying them. Scholars freely made digests or commentaries on other works, which could contain as much or as little original material as the author desired, in other words, you could not expect published books to contain ideas, exactly as the author have written them. There were no standard system of citation, because printing and pagination was not yet existent. In effect, the scholars became an elite and very small group that trusted each other, and relied on each others ideas based mainly on trust. (Robin R. , 2004) This system continued through the European middle ages where education was in Latin and occasionally in Greek. Some scholars became monks, lived in monasteries, and spent much of their time copying manuscripts. Other scholars preferred to be in urban universities and were vaguely connected to the Roman Catholic Church. (Scheinder, A. , 1999) Academic dishonesty dates back to the first tests that were ever conducted. Scholars note that cheating was prevalent on the Chinese civil service exams thousands of years ago, even when cheating carried the heavy penalty of death for both examinee and examiner. (Eckstein, M. A. ) Before the founding of the MLA and the APA at end of the 19th century, there were no set rules on how to properly cite quotations from the writings of others, this is believed to have caused many cases of plagiarism out of plain ignorance. (Smith, K. J. and Davy J. A. , 2004) In the late 1800s and early 1900s, cheating has become more widespread at college campuses in the United States, and was not considered a dishonorable act among students. It has been estimated that as many as two-thirds of students cheated at some point of their college careers at the turn of the 20th century. Fraternities and some academic-related organizations maintained by students, often operated so-called essay mills, where term papers, and old exams were kept on file and could be resubmitted over and over again by different students, or could be referenced at by them, often with the only change being the name on the paper. At that time, college students, usually white privileged men, were expected by their parents and by society to live the life of the young gentleman, and were required to fulfill a number of social obligations, make connections with the future elite, find a suitable mate, become independent, that were considered far more important than grades. Accordingly, cheating was commonly used by students to put more time towards fulfilling their social obligations at the expense of their academic ones. As higher education in the U. S. trended towards meritocracy, however, a greater emphasis was put on anti-cheating policies, and the newly diverse student bodies tended to arrive with a more negative view of academic dishonesty. (Simmons, S. C. , 1999) At present, academic dishonesty has become widespread in all levels of education. In the United States alone, studies show that 20% of students would begin cheating as early as at their first grade, in relation other studies also show that in the United States around 56% of middle school children and an alarming 70% of those who are at high school have already cheated. (Smith, K. J. and Davy J. A. , 2004) What is more alarming is that it has been revealed that students are not the only ones to cheat in an academic setting. A study among North Carolina school teachers found that some 35 percent of respondents said they had witnessed their colleagues cheating in one form or another (plagiarism, falsification of data†¦etc). The rise of high-stakes testing and the consequences of the results on the teacher is cited as a reason why a teacher might want to inflate the results of their students. (Underwood J. and Szabo A. , 2003)